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Search our database of hundreds of health information articles. They are current, constantly updated, and authoritatively sourced!

Speech and Communication Disorders

Many disorders can affect our ability to speak and communicate. They range from saying sounds incorrectly to being completely unable to speak or understand speech. Causes include:

  • Hearing disorders and deafness
  • Voice problems, such as dysphonia or those caused by cleft lip or palate
  • Speech problems like stuttering
  • Developmental disabilities
  • Learning disabilities
  • Autism spectrum disorder
  • Brain injury
  • Stroke

Some speech and communication problems may be genetic. Often, no one knows the causes. By first grade, about 5% of children have noticeable speech disorders. Speech and language therapy can help.

NIH: National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders

Steroids

You may have heard of anabolic steroids, which can have harmful effects. But there's another type of steroid - sometimes called a corticosteroid - that treats a variety of problems. These steroids are similar to hormones that your adrenal glands make to fight stress associated with illnesses and injuries. They reduce inflammation and affect the immune system.

You may need to take corticosteroids to treat:

  • Arthritis
  • Asthma
  • Autoimmune diseases such as lupus and multiple sclerosis
  • Skin conditions such as eczema and rashes
  • Some kinds of cancer

Steroids are strong medicines, and they can have side effects, including weakened bones and cataracts. Because of this, you usually take them for as short a time as possible.

Tetanus, Diphtheria, and Pertussis Vaccines

Tetanus, diphtheria, and pertussis (whooping cough) are serious bacterial infections. Tetanus causes painful tightening of the muscles, usually all over the body. It can lead to "locking" of the jaw. Diphtheria usually affects the nose and throat. Whooping cough causes uncontrollable coughing. Vaccines can protect you from these diseases. In the U.S., there are four combination vaccines:

  • DTaP prevents all three diseases. It is for children younger than seven years old.
  • Tdap also prevents all three. It is for older children and adults.
  • DT prevents diphtheria and tetanus. It is for children younger than seven who cannot tolerate the pertussis vaccine.
  • Td prevents diphtheria and tetanus. It is for older children and adults. It is usually given as a booster dose every 10 years. You may also get it earlier if you get a severe and dirty wound or burn.

Some people should not get these vaccines, including those who have had severe reactions to the shots before. Check with your doctor first if you have seizures, a neurologic problem, or Guillain-Barre syndrome. Also let your doctor know if you don't feel well the day of the shot; you may need to postpone it.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

Turner Syndrome

What is Turner syndrome?

Turner syndrome is a genetic disorder that affects a girl's development and appearance. It can also cause health problems such as infertility and heart problems.

What causes Turner syndrome?

What are the symptoms of Turner syndrome?

Turner syndrome can cause many different symptoms. The symptoms may be mild for some people. But for others, Turner syndrome can cause serious health problems.

Some of the symptoms of Turner syndrome affect a person's appearance. Most people with Turner syndrome are shorter than average. They may also have physical features such as:

  • A neck that is short and has extra skin (a "webbed" neck)
  • A low hairline in the back
  • Low-set ears
  • Swollen hands and feet

People with Turner syndrome may be born with heart and kidney defects. They usually don't have typical sexual development and are infertile. They are also at risk for other health problems such as high blood pressure, type 2 diabetes, osteoporosis, and thyroid problems.

How is Turner syndrome diagnosed?

Health care providers diagnose Turner syndrome based on symptoms and a genetic blood test called a karyotype test. Sometimes it is found in prenatal testing.

What are the treatments for Turner syndrome?

There is no cure for Turner syndrome, but there are treatments for some of the symptoms:

  • If they are started in early childhood, hormone injections can often increase adult height by a few inches
  • Estrogen replacement therapy (ERT) can help start sexual development. It also protects against bone loss
  • Assisted reproduction technologies can help some women with Turner syndrome get pregnant

People who have Turner syndrome need regular health checks. It's also important for them to have a care team that includes specialists who can treat the health problems caused by Turner syndrome.

NIH: National Institute of Child Health and Human Development

Ureteral Disorders

Your kidneys make urine by filtering wastes and extra water from your blood. The urine travels from the kidneys to the bladder in two thin tubes called ureters.

The ureters are about 8 to 10 inches long. Muscles in the ureter walls tighten and relax to force urine down and away from the kidneys. Small amounts of urine flow from the ureters into the bladder about every 10 to 15 seconds.

Sometimes the ureters can become blocked or injured. This can block the flow of urine to the bladder. If urine stands still or backs up the ureter, you may get a urinary tract infections.

Doctors diagnose problems with the ureters using different tests. These include urine tests, x-rays, and examination of the ureter with a scope called a cystoscope. Treatment depends on the cause of the problem. It may include medicines and, in severe cases, surgery.

NIH: National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases